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Not to be confused with C++.

Full general-purpose programming language

C

The C Programming Language [i] (often referred to as K&R), the seminal volume on C
Paradigm	Multi-paradigm: imperative (procedural), structured
Designed by	Dennis Ritchie
Programmer	Dennis Ritchie & Bell Labs (creators); ANSI X3J11 (ANSI C); ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG14 (ISO C)
First appeared	1972; l years ago  (1972) [ii]
Stable release	C17 / June 2018; 3 years ago  (2018-06)
Preview release	C2x (N2731) / October 18, 2021; v months agone  (2021-10-18) [3]
Typing subject	Static, weak, manifest, nominal
OS	Cross-platform
Filename extensions	.c, .h
Website	www.iso.org/standard/74528.html www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/
Major implementations
pcc, GCC, Clang, Intel C, C++Architect, Microsoft Visual C++, Watcom C
Dialects
Cyclone, Unified Parallel C, Separate-C, Cilk, C*
Influenced by
B (BCPL, CPL), ALGOL 68,[four] associates, PL/I, FORTRAN
Influenced
Numerous: AMPL, AWK, csh, C++, C--, C#, Objective-C, D, Get, Coffee, JavaScript, JS++, Julia, Limbo, LPC, Perl, PHP, Pike, Processing, Python, Ring,[5]Rust, Seed7, Vala, Verilog (HDL),[6] Nim, Zig
C Programming at Wikibooks

C (, equally in the letter c) is a general-purpose, procedural computer programming language supporting structured programming, lexical variable scope, and recursion, with a static type system. By design, C provides constructs that map efficiently to typical auto instructions. It has found lasting use in applications previously coded in associates linguistic communication. Such applications include operating systems and various application software for reckoner architectures that range from supercomputers to PLCs and embedded systems.

A successor to the programming language B, C was originally adult at Bell Labs by Dennis Ritchie between 1972 and 1973 to construct utilities running on Unix. Information technology was applied to re-implementing the kernel of the Unix operating arrangement.^[7] During the 1980s, C gradually gained popularity. It has become ane of the almost widely used programming languages,^{[viii] [9]} with C compilers from various vendors available for the bulk of existing figurer architectures and operating systems. C has been standardized by ANSI since 1989 (ANSI C) and by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

C is an imperative procedural language. It was designed to be compiled to provide low-level access to memory and linguistic communication constructs that map efficiently to machine instructions, all with minimal runtime support. Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage cross-platform programming. A standards-compliant C program written with portability in mind can be compiled for a wide variety of reckoner platforms and operating systems with few changes to its source code.^[10]

Since 2000, C has consistently ranked among the height ii languages in the TIOBE index, a measure of the popularity of programming languages.^[11]

Overview [edit]

Like most procedural languages in the ALGOL tradition, C has facilities for structured programming and allows lexical variable telescopic and recursion. Its static type organization prevents unintended operations. In C, all executable code is contained within subroutines (also called "functions", though not strictly in the sense of functional programming). Function parameters are always passed by value (except arrays). Pass-by-reference is simulated in C by explicitly passing pointer values. C program source text is free-format, using the semicolon equally a statement terminator and curly braces for grouping blocks of statements.

The C language also exhibits the following characteristics:

• The language has a pocket-size, fixed number of keywords, including a full set of control flow primitives: if/else, for, do/while, while, and switch. User-defined names are not distinguished from keywords by any kind of sigil.
• Information technology has a large number of arithmetic, bitwise, and logic operators: +,+=,++,&,||, etc.
• More than i assignment may exist performed in a unmarried statement.
• Functions:
  • Function return values can be ignored, when not needed.
  • Function and data pointers allow advertizing hoc run-fourth dimension polymorphism.
  • Functions may not be defined within the lexical scope of other functions.
• Data typing is static, but weakly enforced; all information has a type, simply implicit conversions are possible.
• Annunciation syntax mimics usage context. C has no "define" keyword; instead, a statement get-go with the name of a type is taken as a declaration. There is no "function" keyword; instead, a function is indicated by the presence of a parenthesized argument list.
• User-defined (typedef) and chemical compound types are possible.
  • Heterogeneous aggregate data types (struct) allow related information elements to be accessed and assigned as a unit.
  • Wedlock is a construction with overlapping members; but the concluding fellow member stored is valid.
  • Assortment indexing is a secondary notation, defined in terms of pointer arithmetic. Unlike structs, arrays are not commencement-class objects: they cannot be assigned or compared using single built-in operators. There is no "assortment" keyword in use or definition; instead, foursquare brackets indicate arrays syntactically, for case month[xi].
  • Enumerated types are possible with the enum keyword. They are freely interconvertible with integers.
  • Strings are not a distinct data type, but are conventionally implemented as null-terminated graphic symbol arrays.
• Low-level admission to computer memory is possible past converting car addresses to typed pointers.
• Procedures (subroutines non returning values) are a special case of function, with an untyped return type void.
• A preprocessor performs macro definition, source code file inclusion, and conditional compilation.
• There is a basic form of modularity: files can be compiled separately and linked together, with control over which functions and data objects are visible to other files via static and extern attributes.
• Complex functionality such as I/O, string manipulation, and mathematical functions are consistently delegated to library routines.

While C does not include sure features constitute in other languages (such as object orientation and garbage drove), these can be implemented or emulated, often through the use of external libraries (e.m., the GLib Object System or the Boehm garbage collector).

Relations to other languages [edit]

Many later on languages have borrowed direct or indirectly from C, including C++, C#, Unix's C trounce, D, Go, Coffee, JavaScript (including transpilers), Julia, Limbo, LPC, Objective-C, Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby-red, Rust, Swift, Verilog and SystemVerilog (hardware clarification languages).^[6] These languages take fatigued many of their command structures and other bones features from C. Most of them (Python being a dramatic exception) likewise express highly similar syntax to C, and they tend to combine the recognizable expression and statement syntax of C with underlying blazon systems, data models, and semantics that tin can be radically dissimilar.

History [edit]

Early developments [edit]

Timeline of linguistic communication development

Twelvemonth	C Standard[10]
1972	Birth
1978	Yard&R C
1989/1990	ANSI C and ISO C
1999	C99
2011	C11
2017	C17
TBD	C2x

The origin of C is closely tied to the development of the Unix operating organisation, originally implemented in assembly linguistic communication on a PDP-seven by Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson, incorporating several ideas from colleagues. Somewhen, they decided to port the operating organisation to a PDP-11. The original PDP-eleven version of Unix was also developed in associates linguistic communication.^[seven]

Thompson desired a programming linguistic communication to brand utilities for the new platform. At outset, he tried to make a Fortran compiler, merely shortly gave up the idea. Instead, he created a cut-down version of the recently developed BCPL systems programming linguistic communication. The official description of BCPL was non bachelor at the fourth dimension,^[12] and Thompson modified the syntax to be less wordy, and similar to a simplified ALGOL known as SMALGOL.^[13] The effect was the similar but somewhat simpler language he called B.^[7] Like BCPL, B had a bootstrapping compiler to facilitate porting to new machines.^[13] Thompson described B every bit "BCPL semantics with a lot of SMALGOL syntax".^[xiii] Even so, few utilities were ultimately written in B considering it was too boring, and B could not take advantage of PDP-11 features such as byte addressability.

In 1971, Ritchie started to amend B, running it on newer, more-powerful PDP-11. A significant add-on was a character type. He called this "New B".^[13] The NB language was relatively short-lived.^[7] Thompson started to use NB to write the Unix kernel, and his requirements shaped the direction of the linguistic communication development.^{[13] [fourteen]} Through to 1972, richer types were added to the NB language: NB had arrays of int and char; merely then were added pointers, ability to generate pointers to other types, arrays of all of these, types to be returned from functions. Arrays within expressions became pointers. A new compiler was written, And with that the name was inverse to C. ^[7]

The C compiler and some utilities made with it were included in Version 2 Unix.^[15]

At Version four Unix, released in November 1973, the Unix kernel was extensively re-implemented in C.^[seven] By this time, the C linguistic communication had acquired some powerful features such as struct types.

The preprocessor was introduced effectually 1973 at the urging of Alan Snyder and also in recognition of the usefulness of the file-inclusion mechanisms available in BCPL and PL/I. Its original version provided just included files and unproblematic string replacements: #include and #define of parameterless macros. Soon after that, information technology was extended, more often than not past Mike Lesk and and so by John Reiser, to incorporate macros with arguments and conditional compilation.^[7]

Unix was one of the first operating organization kernels implemented in a linguistic communication other than assembly. Earlier instances include the Multics organisation (which was written in PL/I) and Master Command Program (MCP) for the Burroughs B5000 (which was written in ALGOL) in 1961. In around 1977, Ritchie and Stephen C. Johnson made further changes to the language to facilitate portability of the Unix operating arrangement. Johnson's Portable C Compiler served equally the ground for several implementations of C on new platforms.^[14]

K&R C [edit]

In 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie published the kickoff edition of The C Programming Language.^[ane] This book, known to C programmers as One thousand&R, served for many years every bit an informal specification of the language. The version of C that it describes is usually referred to as "Grand&R C". Equally this was released in 1978, it is also referred to as C78.^[16] The 2nd edition of the book^[17] covers the later ANSI C standard, described beneath.

1000&R introduced several language features:

• Standard I/O library
• long int data type
• unsigned int information type
• Chemical compound consignment operators of the grade =op (such as =-) were changed to the course op= (that is, -=) to remove the semantic ambiguity created past constructs such equally i=-10, which had been interpreted every bit i =- 10 (decrement i by ten) instead of the possibly intended i = -ten (allow i be −10).

Even after the publication of the 1989 ANSI standard, for many years K&R C was however considered the "lowest common denominator" to which C programmers restricted themselves when maximum portability was desired, since many older compilers were still in use, and considering carefully written 1000&R C code tin be legal Standard C every bit well.

In early versions of C, only functions that return types other than int must be declared if used earlier the function definition; functions used without prior declaration were presumed to render type int.

For instance:

                        long                                    some_function            ();                        /* int */                                    other_function            ();                        /* int */                                    calling_function            ()                        {                                                long                                    test1            ;                                                annals                                    /* int */                                    test2            ;                                                test1                                    =                                    some_function            ();                                                if                                    (            test1                                    >                                    1            )                                                test2                                    =                                    0            ;                                                else                                                test2                                    =                                    other_function            ();                                                render                                    test2            ;                        }                      

The int type specifiers which are commented out could be omitted in One thousand&R C, merely are required in later standards.

Since Thousand&R office declarations did not include any information about function arguments, role parameter type checks were non performed, although some compilers would issue a warning message if a local function was called with the incorrect number of arguments, or if multiple calls to an external role used different numbers or types of arguments. Separate tools such as Unix'due south lint utility were developed that (among other things) could check for consistency of office use across multiple source files.

In the years post-obit the publication of K&R C, several features were added to the language, supported by compilers from AT&T (in particular PCC^[18]) and some other vendors. These included:

• void functions (i.e., functions with no return value)
• functions returning struct or union types (rather than pointers)
• assignment for struct data types
• enumerated types

The large number of extensions and lack of agreement on a standard library, together with the language popularity and the fact that not even the Unix compilers precisely implemented the Yard&R specification, led to the necessity of standardization.

ANSI C and ISO C [edit]

During the late 1970s and 1980s, versions of C were implemented for a wide variety of mainframe computers, minicomputers, and microcomputers, including the IBM PC, as its popularity began to increment significantly.

In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) formed a committee, X3J11, to institute a standard specification of C. X3J11 based the C standard on the Unix implementation; however, the non-portable portion of the Unix C library was handed off to the IEEE working group 1003 to become the basis for the 1988 POSIX standard. In 1989, the C standard was ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989 "Programming Linguistic communication C". This version of the language is often referred to as ANSI C, Standard C, or sometimes C89.

In 1990, the ANSI C standard (with formatting changes) was adopted by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) every bit ISO/IEC 9899:1990, which is sometimes called C90. Therefore, the terms "C89" and "C90" refer to the same programming linguistic communication.

ANSI, like other national standards bodies, no longer develops the C standard independently, but defers to the international C standard, maintained by the working group ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG14. National adoption of an update to the international standard typically occurs inside a year of ISO publication.

One of the aims of the C standardization procedure was to produce a superset of Thousand&R C, incorporating many of the subsequently introduced unofficial features. The standards committee also included several boosted features such every bit function prototypes (borrowed from C++), void pointers, support for international graphic symbol sets and locales, and preprocessor enhancements. Although the syntax for parameter declarations was augmented to include the style used in C++, the K&R interface continued to be permitted, for compatibility with existing source code.

C89 is supported past current C compilers, and most modern C code is based on information technology. Whatsoever program written simply in Standard C and without any hardware-dependent assumptions volition run correctly on any platform with a conforming C implementation, within its resource limits. Without such precautions, programs may compile only on a certain platform or with a particular compiler, due, for example, to the use of non-standard libraries, such as GUI libraries, or to a reliance on compiler- or platform-specific attributes such as the exact size of information types and byte endianness.

In cases where lawmaking must be compilable by either standard-befitting or K&R C-based compilers, the __STDC__ macro can be used to split the code into Standard and K&R sections to prevent the utilize on a Chiliad&R C-based compiler of features bachelor only in Standard C.

Subsequently the ANSI/ISO standardization process, the C language specification remained relatively static for several years. In 1995, Normative Amendment i to the 1990 C standard (ISO/IEC 9899/AMD1:1995, known informally every bit C95) was published, to correct some details and to add more than extensive support for international character sets.^[19]

C99 [edit]

Main article: C99

The C standard was farther revised in the late 1990s, leading to the publication of ISO/IEC 9899:1999 in 1999, which is unremarkably referred to as "C99". Information technology has since been amended three times past Technical Corrigenda.^[twenty]

C99 introduced several new features, including inline functions, several new information types (including long long int and a complex type to stand for circuitous numbers), variable-length arrays and flexible array members, improved support for IEEE 754 floating point, support for variadic macros (macros of variable arity), and support for ane-line comments beginning with //, equally in BCPL or C++. Many of these had already been implemented as extensions in several C compilers.

C99 is for the most part backward compatible with C90, only is stricter in some ways; in particular, a annunciation that lacks a blazon specifier no longer has int implicitly assumed. A standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined with value 199901L to indicate that C99 support is available. GCC, Solaris Studio, and other C compilers at present support many or all of the new features of C99. The C compiler in Microsoft Visual C++, however, implements the C89 standard and those parts of C99 that are required for compatibility with C++xi.^{[21] [ needs update ]}

In addition, support for Unicode identifiers (variable / function names) in the form of escaped characters (e.1000. \U0001f431) is now required. Back up for raw Unicode names is optional.

C11 [edit]

In 2007, work began on another revision of the C standard, informally called "C1X" until its official publication on 2011-12-08. The C standards committee adopted guidelines to limit the adoption of new features that had not been tested by existing implementations.

The C11 standard adds numerous new features to C and the library, including type generic macros, anonymous structures, improved Unicode support, atomic operations, multi-threading, and bounds-checked functions. It also makes some portions of the existing C99 library optional, and improves compatibility with C++. The standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined as 201112L to bespeak that C11 support is available.

C17 [edit]

Published in June 2018, C17 is the current standard for the C programming language. It introduces no new language features, only technical corrections, and clarifications to defects in C11. The standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined equally 201710L.

C2x [edit]

Principal commodity: C2x

C2x is an informal proper name for the next (afterwards C17) major C language standard revision. It is expected to be voted on in 2023 and would therefore be called C23.^{[22] [ improve source needed ]}

Embedded C [edit]

Historically, embedded C programming requires nonstandard extensions to the C linguistic communication in gild to support exotic features such as fixed-bespeak arithmetic, multiple distinct retention banks, and basic I/O operations.

In 2008, the C Standards Committee published a technical report extending the C linguistic communication^[23] to address these bug by providing a common standard for all implementations to adhere to. It includes a number of features non bachelor in normal C, such as stock-still-signal arithmetic, named address spaces, and bones I/O hardware addressing.

Syntax [edit]

C has a formal grammar specified by the C standard.^[24] Line endings are generally not significant in C; however, line boundaries exercise take significance during the preprocessing phase. Comments may announced either between the delimiters /* and */, or (since C99) following // until the stop of the line. Comments delimited past /* and */ practice not nest, and these sequences of characters are not interpreted equally comment delimiters if they appear inside cord or character literals.^[25]

C source files incorporate declarations and part definitions. Function definitions, in turn, incorporate declarations and statements. Declarations either define new types using keywords such as struct, union, and enum, or assign types to and peradventure reserve storage for new variables, unremarkably by writing the type followed by the variable name. Keywords such as char and int specify congenital-in types. Sections of lawmaking are enclosed in braces ({ and }, sometimes chosen "curly brackets") to limit the scope of declarations and to human activity as a single statement for control structures.

As an imperative language, C uses statements to specify actions. The most common statement is an expression argument, consisting of an expression to exist evaluated, followed past a semicolon; equally a side upshot of the evaluation, functions may be called and variables may exist assigned new values. To modify the normal sequential execution of statements, C provides several control-flow statements identified by reserved keywords. Structured programming is supported by if … [else] provisional execution and past do … while, while, and for iterative execution (looping). The for statement has separate initialization, testing, and reinitialization expressions, whatsoever or all of which can be omitted. pause and proceed can be used to leave the innermost enclosing loop statement or skip to its reinitialization. At that place is too a not-structured goto statement which branches directly to the designated label inside the function. switch selects a case to exist executed based on the value of an integer expression.

Expressions tin can use a diversity of built-in operators and may comprise function calls. The order in which arguments to functions and operands to most operators are evaluated is unspecified. The evaluations may even be interleaved. However, all side furnishings (including storage to variables) will occur before the next "sequence betoken"; sequence points include the end of each expression argument, and the entry to and render from each role phone call. Sequence points also occur during evaluation of expressions containing certain operators (&&, ||, ?: and the comma operator). This permits a high degree of object code optimization past the compiler, but requires C programmers to have more intendance to obtain reliable results than is needed for other programming languages.

Kernighan and Ritchie say in the Introduction of The C Programming Language: "C, like any other linguistic communication, has its blemishes. Some of the operators have the wrong precedence; some parts of the syntax could be better."^[26] The C standard did not endeavor to right many of these blemishes, considering of the impact of such changes on already existing software.

Character ready [edit]

The bones C source character set includes the following characters:

• Lowercase and uppercase messages of ISO Basic Latin Alphabet: a–z A–Z
• Decimal digits: 0–9
• Graphic characters: ! " # % & ' ( ) * + , - . / : ; < = > ? [ \ ] ^ _ { | } ~
• Whitespace characters: space, horizontal tab, vertical tab, form feed, newline

Newline indicates the end of a text line; it demand not correspond to an bodily unmarried character, although for convenience C treats it as one.

Additional multi-byte encoded characters may be used in string literals, but they are not entirely portable. The latest C standard (C11) allows multi-national Unicode characters to be embedded portably within C source text by using \uXXXX or \UXXXXXXXX encoding (where the X denotes a hexadecimal grapheme), although this feature is not yet widely implemented.

The bones C execution character gear up contains the same characters, along with representations for warning, backspace, and carriage return. Run-fourth dimension support for extended character sets has increased with each revision of the C standard.

Reserved words [edit]

C89 has 32 reserved words, as well known equally keywords, which are the words that cannot be used for whatsoever purposes other than those for which they are predefined:

• auto
• break
• example
• char
• const
• continue
• default
• do
• double
• else
• enum
• extern
• float
• for
• goto
• if
• int
• long
• register
• render
• curt
• signed
• sizeof
• static
• struct
• switch
• typedef
• union
• unsigned
• void
• volatile
• while

C99 reserved 5 more words:

• _Bool
• _Complex
• _Imaginary
• inline
• restrict

C11 reserved vii more words:^[27]

• _Alignas
• _Alignof
• _Atomic
• _Generic
• _Noreturn
• _Static_assert
• _Thread_local

Most of the recently reserved words begin with an underscore followed past a upper-case letter, considering identifiers of that form were previously reserved past the C standard for employ only by implementations. Since existing programme source code should non have been using these identifiers, it would not be afflicted when C implementations started supporting these extensions to the programming language. Some standard headers do define more than convenient synonyms for underscored identifiers. The language previously included a reserved word called entry, but this was seldom implemented, and has now been removed as a reserved word.^[28]

Operators [edit]

C supports a rich set of operators, which are symbols used inside an expression to specify the manipulations to be performed while evaluating that expression. C has operators for:

• arithmetic: +, -, *, /, %
• assignment: =
• augmented consignment: +=, -=, *=, /=, %=, &=, |=, ^=, <<=, >>=
• bitwise logic: ~, &, |, ^
• bitwise shifts: <<, >>
• boolean logic: !, &&, ||
• conditional evaluation: ? :
• equality testing: ==, !=
• calling functions: ( )
• increment and decrement: ++, --
• fellow member selection: ., ->
• object size: sizeof
• society relations: <, <=, >, >=
• reference and dereference: &, *, [ ]
• sequencing: ,
• subexpression grouping: ( )
• blazon conversion: (typename)

C uses the operator = (used in mathematics to limited equality) to indicate assignment, following the precedent of Fortran and PL/I, but unlike ALGOL and its derivatives. C uses the operator == to test for equality. The similarity between these two operators (assignment and equality) may result in the accidental use of i in place of the other, and in many cases, the mistake does not produce an mistake message (although some compilers produce warnings). For example, the conditional expression if (a == b + 1) might mistakenly be written as if (a = b + 1), which volition be evaluated every bit truthful if a is not zero after the consignment.^[29]

The C operator precedence is non always intuitive. For example, the operator == binds more tightly than (is executed prior to) the operators & (bitwise AND) and | (bitwise OR) in expressions such as 10 & 1 == 0, which must exist written equally (x & i) == 0 if that is the coder'south intent.^[30]

"Hello, world" case [edit]

The "hello, world" example, which appeared in the first edition of K&R, has become the model for an introductory plan in almost programming textbooks. The program prints "hi, world" to the standard output, which is usually a terminal or screen display.

The original version was:^[31]

                        main            ()                        {                                                printf            (            "hello, globe            \n            "            );                        }                      

A standard-conforming "hello, world" program is:^[a]

                        #include                                    <stdio.h>                        int                                    main            (            void            )                        {                                                printf            (            "hello, world            \n            "            );                        }                      

The first line of the program contains a preprocessing directive, indicated by #include. This causes the compiler to replace that line with the unabridged text of the stdio.h standard header, which contains declarations for standard input and output functions such as printf and scanf. The angle brackets surrounding stdio.h bespeak that stdio.h is located using a search strategy that prefers headers provided with the compiler to other headers having the aforementioned proper name, equally opposed to double quotes which typically include local or project-specific header files.

The next line indicates that a function named main is beingness defined. The main office serves a special purpose in C programs; the run-time environment calls the main function to begin program execution. The type specifier int indicates that the value that is returned to the invoker (in this instance the run-time surroundings) as a result of evaluating the main part, is an integer. The keyword void as a parameter list indicates that this function takes no arguments.^[b]

The opening curly brace indicates the outset of the definition of the main function.

The next line calls (diverts execution to) a part named printf, which in this example is supplied from a system library. In this call, the printf part is passed (provided with) a unmarried argument, the accost of the offset character in the cord literal "hello, world\n". The cord literal is an unnamed array with elements of type char, fix automatically by the compiler with a last 0-valued character to marker the finish of the array (printf needs to know this). The \n is an escape sequence that C translates to a newline character, which on output signifies the stop of the current line. The render value of the printf part is of blazon int, merely it is silently discarded since it is not used. (A more careful program might test the return value to make up one's mind whether or not the printf function succeeded.) The semicolon ; terminates the statement.

The closing curly caryatid indicates the end of the code for the master role. Co-ordinate to the C99 specification and newer, the master function, dissimilar any other part, volition implicitly return a value of 0 upon reaching the } that terminates the function. (Formerly an explicit return 0; statement was required.) This is interpreted by the run-time arrangement as an exit code indicating successful execution.^[32]

Data types [edit]

The type system in C is static and weakly typed, which makes it like to the type system of ALGOL descendants such equally Pascal.^[33] At that place are congenital-in types for integers of diverse sizes, both signed and unsigned, floating-point numbers, and enumerated types (enum). Integer blazon char is often used for single-byte characters. C99 added a boolean datatype. There are besides derived types including arrays, pointers, records (struct), and unions (union).

C is often used in low-level systems programming where escapes from the blazon organization may exist necessary. The compiler attempts to ensure type correctness of nearly expressions, but the programmer tin override the checks in various means, either by using a type cast to explicitly convert a value from one type to another, or past using pointers or unions to reinterpret the underlying bits of a data object in some other way.

Some observe C's declaration syntax unintuitive, particularly for function pointers. (Ritchie'south thought was to declare identifiers in contexts resembling their apply: "proclamation reflects utilise".)^[34]

C's usual arithmetics conversions permit for efficient lawmaking to be generated, but tin can sometimes produce unexpected results. For example, a comparing of signed and unsigned integers of equal width requires a conversion of the signed value to unsigned. This can generate unexpected results if the signed value is negative.

Pointers [edit]

C supports the use of pointers, a blazon of reference that records the accost or location of an object or function in memory. Pointers can be dereferenced to access data stored at the address pointed to, or to invoke a pointed-to function. Pointers can be manipulated using assignment or pointer arithmetics. The run-time representation of a arrow value is typically a raw memory accost (perhaps augmented by an start-within-discussion field), just since a pointer's type includes the type of the affair pointed to, expressions including pointers can be type-checked at compile fourth dimension. Arrow arithmetic is automatically scaled by the size of the pointed-to data blazon. Pointers are used for many purposes in C. Text strings are commonly manipulated using pointers into arrays of characters. Dynamic retentiveness resource allotment is performed using pointers. Many information types, such as trees, are usually implemented equally dynamically allocated struct objects linked together using pointers. Pointers to functions are useful for passing functions as arguments to college-order functions (such equally qsort or bsearch) or as callbacks to be invoked by event handlers.^[32]

A null pointer value explicitly points to no valid location. Dereferencing a null pointer value is undefined, ofttimes resulting in a division error. Null arrow values are useful for indicating special cases such as no "next" arrow in the final node of a linked listing, or every bit an error indication from functions returning pointers. In appropriate contexts in source lawmaking, such as for assigning to a arrow variable, a nothing pointer constant can exist written as 0, with or without explicit casting to a pointer type, or as the Goose egg macro defined by several standard headers. In provisional contexts, null pointer values evaluate to simulated, while all other pointer values evaluate to true.

Void pointers (void *) bespeak to objects of unspecified blazon, and tin can therefore be used as "generic" data pointers. Since the size and type of the pointed-to object is not known, void pointers cannot exist dereferenced, nor is arrow arithmetic on them allowed, although they can easily be (and in many contexts implicitly are) converted to and from whatever other object arrow type.^[32]

Devil-may-care utilise of pointers is potentially dangerous. Because they are typically unchecked, a pointer variable can exist made to point to whatsoever arbitrary location, which tin can crusade undesirable effects. Although properly used pointers bespeak to safe places, they can be made to betoken to dangerous places by using invalid pointer arithmetic; the objects they indicate to may keep to be used later on deallocation (dangling pointers); they may exist used without having been initialized (wild pointers); or they may be directly assigned an dangerous value using a cast, union, or through some other decadent arrow. In general, C is permissive in allowing manipulation of and conversion between pointer types, although compilers typically provide options for various levels of checking. Some other programming languages address these problems by using more restrictive reference types.

Arrays [edit]

Array types in C are traditionally of a fixed, static size specified at compile time. The more than recent C99 standard as well allows a class of variable-length arrays. All the same, it is also possible to allocate a block of memory (of arbitrary size) at run-time, using the standard library'southward malloc function, and treat information technology as an array.

Since arrays are always accessed (in event) via pointers, assortment accesses are typically non checked against the underlying array size, although some compilers may provide bounds checking as an option.^{[35] [36]} Array bounds violations are therefore possible and can lead to diverse repercussions, including illegal memory accesses, abuse of data, buffer overruns, and run-fourth dimension exceptions.

C does not accept a special provision for declaring multi-dimensional arrays, but rather relies on recursion within the blazon system to declare arrays of arrays, which effectively accomplishes the same thing. The index values of the resulting "multi-dimensional array" can be thought of every bit increasing in row-major social club. Multi-dimensional arrays are commonly used in numerical algorithms (mainly from applied linear algebra) to store matrices. The structure of the C array is well suited to this detail task. All the same, in early versions of C the premises of the assortment must be known stock-still values or else explicitly passed to any subroutine that requires them, and dynamically sized arrays of arrays cannot be accessed using double indexing. (A workaround for this was to allocate the assortment with an boosted "row vector" of pointers to the columns.) C99 introduced "variable-length arrays" which address this outcome.

The following case using mod C (C99 or later) shows allocation of a two-dimensional array on the heap and the use of multi-dimensional array indexing for accesses (which tin use premises-checking on many C compilers):

                        int                                    func            (            int                                    N            ,                                    int                                    Grand            )                        {                                                float                                    (            *            p            )[            N            ][            M            ]                                    =                                    malloc            (            sizeof                                    *            p            );                                                if                                    (            !            p            )                                                return                                    -1            ;                                                for                                    (            int                                    i                                    =                                    0            ;                                    i                                    <                                    N            ;                                    i            ++            )                                                for                                    (            int                                    j                                    =                                    0            ;                                    j                                    <                                    Grand            ;                                    j            ++            )                                                (            *            p            )[            i            ][            j            ]                                    =                                    i                                    +                                    j            ;                                                print_array            (            N            ,                                    One thousand            ,                                    p            );                                                free            (            p            );                                                return                                    ane            ;                        }                      

Array–pointer interchangeability [edit]

The subscript annotation x[i] (where x designates a pointer) is syntactic sugar for *(x+i).^[37] Taking reward of the compiler's knowledge of the pointer type, the address that x + i points to is not the base address (pointed to by x) incremented by i bytes, but rather is defined to be the base of operations address incremented by i multiplied by the size of an element that x points to. Thus, ten[i] designates the i+1thursday element of the array.

Furthermore, in most expression contexts (a notable exception is as operand of sizeof), an expression of array type is automatically converted to a pointer to the assortment's first element. This implies that an array is never copied as a whole when named as an argument to a role, but rather only the accost of its first element is passed. Therefore, although function calls in C use pass-by-value semantics, arrays are in upshot passed past reference.

The total size of an array x tin can be determined by applying sizeof to an expression of array type. The size of an element can be determined by applying the operator sizeof to any dereferenced chemical element of an array A, as in north = sizeof A[0]. This, the number of elements in a alleged assortment A tin can be determined equally sizeof A / sizeof A[0]. Annotation, that if only a pointer to the first element is available as it is frequently the case in C code because of the automated conversion described in a higher place, the information about the full type of the assortment and its length are lost.

Memory management [edit]

One of the most important functions of a programming language is to provide facilities for managing memory and the objects that are stored in retentivity. C provides 3 distinct ways to allocate retention for objects:^[32]

• Static memory allocation: infinite for the object is provided in the binary at compile-fourth dimension; these objects have an extent (or lifetime) as long as the binary which contains them is loaded into memory.
• Automated memory allocation: temporary objects tin can be stored on the stack, and this infinite is automatically freed and reusable after the block in which they are alleged is exited.
• Dynamic retention allocation: blocks of memory of arbitrary size can be requested at run-time using library functions such as malloc from a region of memory called the heap; these blocks persist until afterward freed for reuse by calling the library part realloc or free

These three approaches are appropriate in different situations and have various trade-offs. For instance, static memory allocation has little allocation overhead, automated allocation may involve slightly more overhead, and dynamic retentivity allocation can potentially take a great deal of overhead for both allocation and deallocation. The persistent nature of static objects is useful for maintaining state information beyond function calls, automated resource allotment is like shooting fish in a barrel to use just stack space is typically much more than express and transient than either static retentivity or heap space, and dynamic memory allocation allows user-friendly allotment of objects whose size is known just at run-fourth dimension. Near C programs make extensive employ of all 3.

Where possible, automated or static resource allotment is usually simplest considering the storage is managed past the compiler, freeing the programmer of the potentially error-decumbent chore of manually allocating and releasing storage. Nevertheless, many data structures tin change in size at runtime, and since static allocations (and automatic allocations before C99) must have a fixed size at compile-time, there are many situations in which dynamic allotment is necessary.^[32] Prior to the C99 standard, variable-sized arrays were a common case of this. (Meet the article on malloc for an case of dynamically allocated arrays.) Unlike automatic allocation, which can fail at run time with uncontrolled consequences, the dynamic allocation functions return an indication (in the form of a zilch arrow value) when the required storage cannot be allocated. (Static allotment that is too big is normally detected by the linker or loader, before the plan tin even begin execution.)

Unless otherwise specified, static objects contain zero or null pointer values upon program startup. Automatically and dynamically allocated objects are initialized only if an initial value is explicitly specified; otherwise they initially have indeterminate values (typically, whatever fleck blueprint happens to be nowadays in the storage, which might not even represent a valid value for that blazon). If the plan attempts to admission an uninitialized value, the results are undefined. Many modern compilers attempt to detect and warn about this trouble, but both false positives and fake negatives can occur.

Heap memory allocation has to be synchronized with its actual usage in any program to exist reused every bit much equally possible. For instance, if the just pointer to a heap memory allocation goes out of scope or has its value overwritten before it is deallocated explicitly, and then that retention cannot exist recovered for later reuse and is substantially lost to the plan, a phenomenon known as a retention leak. Conversely, it is possible for retentivity to be freed, but is referenced subsequently, leading to unpredictable results. Typically, the failure symptoms appear in a portion of the plan unrelated to the code that causes the error, making it difficult to diagnose the failure. Such problems are ameliorated in languages with automatic garbage collection.

Libraries [edit]

The C programming language uses libraries as its primary method of extension. In C, a library is a set of functions contained within a unmarried "annal" file. Each library typically has a header file, which contains the prototypes of the functions contained within the library that may be used by a program, and declarations of special data types and macro symbols used with these functions. In order for a programme to use a library, it must include the library's header file, and the library must be linked with the program, which in many cases requires compiler flags (e.g., -lm, shorthand for "link the math library").^[32]

The most common C library is the C standard library, which is specified past the ISO and ANSI C standards and comes with every C implementation (implementations which target limited environments such as embedded systems may provide merely a subset of the standard library). This library supports stream input and output, memory allocation, mathematics, graphic symbol strings, and time values. Several separate standard headers (for example, stdio.h) specify the interfaces for these and other standard library facilities.

Another mutual gear up of C library functions are those used past applications specifically targeted for Unix and Unix-similar systems, especially functions which provide an interface to the kernel. These functions are detailed in various standards such as POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification.

Since many programs have been written in C, at that place are a wide variety of other libraries bachelor. Libraries are often written in C because C compilers generate efficient object lawmaking; programmers then create interfaces to the library so that the routines can be used from college-level languages similar Java, Perl, and Python.^[32]

File treatment and streams [edit]

File input and output (I/O) is non part of the C linguistic communication itself but instead is handled by libraries (such as the C standard library) and their associated header files (e.g. stdio.h). File handling is by and large implemented through loftier-level I/O which works through streams. A stream is from this perspective a information menses that is independent of devices, while a file is a concrete device. The high-level I/O is washed through the association of a stream to a file. In the C standard library, a buffer (a memory expanse or queue) is temporarily used to store data before it's sent to the final destination. This reduces the fourth dimension spent waiting for slower devices, for instance a hard bulldoze or solid state drive. Low-level I/O functions are non part of the standard C library^{[ clarification needed ]} but are by and large part of "blank metal" programming (programming that'southward contained of whatever operating organization such as most embedded programming). With few exceptions, implementations include low-level I/O.

Language tools [edit]

A number of tools have been developed to help C programmers discover and set up statements with undefined beliefs or possibly erroneous expressions, with greater rigor than that provided past the compiler. The tool lint was the beginning such, leading to many others.

Automated source code checking and auditing are beneficial in whatever language, and for C many such tools exist, such as Lint. A common practice is to employ Lint to find questionable code when a program is first written. Once a program passes Lint, it is and then compiled using the C compiler. Also, many compilers can optionally warn virtually syntactically valid constructs that are likely to actually be errors. MISRA C is a proprietary set of guidelines to avoid such questionable code, developed for embedded systems.^[38]

In that location are besides compilers, libraries, and operating system level mechanisms for performing actions that are not a standard function of C, such as bounds checking for arrays, detection of buffer overflow, serialization, dynamic memory tracking, and automatic garbage collection.

Tools such as Purify or Valgrind and linking with libraries containing special versions of the retentivity resource allotment functions can help uncover runtime errors in retentiveness usage.

Uses [edit]

The C Programming Language

C is widely used for systems programming in implementing operating systems and embedded organisation applications,^[39] because C lawmaking, when written for portability, tin be used for most purposes, withal when needed, organization-specific lawmaking tin exist used to access specific hardware addresses and to perform type punning to match externally imposed interface requirements, with a low run-time need on system resource.

C can be used for website programming using the Common Gateway Interface (CGI) as a "gateway" for information between the Web application, the server, and the browser.^[xl] C is often chosen over interpreted languages because of its speed, stability, and well-nigh-universal availability.^[41]

A outcome of C's wide availability and efficiency is that compilers, libraries and interpreters of other programming languages are often implemented in C. For example, the reference implementations of Python, Perl, Ruby, and PHP are written in C.

C enables programmers to create efficient implementations of algorithms and data structures, because the layer of abstraction from hardware is sparse, and its overhead is low, an important criterion for computationally intensive programs. For instance, the GNU Multiple Precision Arithmetics Library, the GNU Scientific Library, Mathematica, and MATLAB are completely or partially written in C.

C is sometimes used as an intermediate language past implementations of other languages. This approach may exist used for portability or convenience; by using C equally an intermediate language, additional auto-specific code generators are not necessary. C has some features, such as line-number preprocessor directives and optional superfluous commas at the end of initializer lists, that back up compilation of generated code. Nevertheless, some of C's shortcomings accept prompted the evolution of other C-based languages specifically designed for apply every bit intermediate languages, such as C--.

C has besides been widely used to implement end-user applications. Even so, such applications can also exist written in newer, college-level languages.

[edit]

The TIOBE alphabetize graph, showing a comparison of the popularity of diverse programming languages^[42]

C has both directly and indirectly influenced many later languages such equally C#, D, Get, Coffee, JavaScript, Limbo, LPC, Perl, PHP, Python, and Unix'south C vanquish.^[43] The well-nigh pervasive influence has been syntactical; all of the languages mentioned combine the argument and (more or less recognizably) expression syntax of C with type systems, data models, and/or large-scale program structures that differ from those of C, sometimes radically.

Several C or about-C interpreters exist, including Ch and CINT, which can also be used for scripting.

When object-oriented programming languages became popular, C++ and Objective-C were 2 different extensions of C that provided object-oriented capabilities. Both languages were originally implemented every bit source-to-source compilers; source code was translated into C, and then compiled with a C compiler.^[44]

The C++ programming linguistic communication (originally named "C with Classes") was devised by Bjarne Stroustrup as an approach to providing object-oriented functionality with a C-similar syntax.^[45] C++ adds greater typing strength, scoping, and other tools useful in object-oriented programming, and permits generic programming via templates. Nearly a superset of C, C++ now supports most of C, with a few exceptions.

Objective-C was originally a very "thin" layer on acme of C, and remains a strict superset of C that permits object-oriented programming using a hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm. Objective-C derives its syntax from both C and Smalltalk: syntax that involves preprocessing, expressions, role declarations, and function calls is inherited from C, while the syntax for object-oriented features was originally taken from Smalltalk.

In addition to C++ and Objective-C, Ch, Cilk, and Unified Parallel C are nearly supersets of C.

See also [edit]

• Compatibility of C and C++
• Comparison of Pascal and C
• Comparing of programming languages
• International Obfuscated C Code Competition
• List of C-based programming languages
• List of C compilers

Notes [edit]

1. ^ The original case code volition compile on well-nigh modernistic compilers that are not in strict standard compliance mode, only it does not fully arrange to the requirements of either C89 or C99. In fact, C99 requires that a diagnostic message be produced.
2. ^ The main function actually has two arguments, int argc and char *argv[], respectively, which can be used to handle command line arguments. The ISO C standard (section 5.ane.2.two.1) requires both forms of main to be supported, which is special treatment not afforded to any other function.

References [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Kernighan, Brian W.; Ritchie, Dennis K. (Feb 1978). The C Programming Linguistic communication (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0-13-110163-0.
2. ^ Ritchie (1993): "Thompson had made a brief attempt to produce a organization coded in an early on version of C—before structures—in 1972, but gave up the try."
3. ^ Fruderica (Dec thirteen, 2020). "History of C". The cppreference.com. Archived from the original on October 24, 2020. Retrieved Oct 24, 2020.
4. ^ Ritchie (1993): "The scheme of type composition adopted by C owes considerable debt to Algol 68, although information technology did not, perhaps, sally in a form that Algol's adherents would approve of."
5. ^ Band Squad (Oct 23, 2021). "The Ring programming language and other languages". band-lang.net.
6. ^ ^{a b} "Verilog HDL (and C)" (PDF). The Inquiry School of Computer Science at the Australian National University. June iii, 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 6, 2013. Retrieved Baronial 19, 2013. 1980s: ; Verilog first introduced ; Verilog inspired by the C programming language
7. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Ritchie (1993)
8. ^ "Programming Language Popularity". 2009. Archived from the original on January 16, 2009. Retrieved January 16, 2009.
9. ^ "TIOBE Programming Community Alphabetize". 2009. Archived from the original on May 4, 2009. Retrieved May 6, 2009.
10. ^ ^{a b} "History of C". en.cppreference.com. Archived from the original on May 29, 2018. Retrieved May 28, 2018.
11. ^ "TIOBE Alphabetize for October 2021". Retrieved October 7, 2021.
12. ^ Ritchie, Dennis. "BCPL to B to C". Archived from the original on December 12, 2019. Retrieved September 10, 2019.
13. ^ ^{a b c d e} Jensen, Richard (December 9, 2020). ""A damn stupid thing to do"—the origins of C". Ars Technica . Retrieved March 28, 2022.
14. ^ ^{a b} Johnson, S. C.; Ritchie, D. M. (1978). "Portability of C Programs and the UNIX System". Bong System Tech. J. 57 (six): 2021–2048. CiteSeerXx.ane.i.138.35. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1978.tb02141.x. S2CID 17510065. (Notation: The PDF is an OCR scan of the original, and contains a rendering of "IBM 370" as "IBM 310".)
15. ^ McIlroy, Grand. D. (1987). A Research Unix reader: annotated excerpts from the Developer's Manual, 1971–1986 (PDF) (Technical report). CSTR. Bell Labs. p. x. 139. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 11, 2017. Retrieved Feb ane, 2015.
16. ^ "C manual pages". FreeBSD Miscellaneous Data Manual (FreeBSD 13.0 ed.). May thirty, 2011. Archived from the original on Jan 21, 2021. Retrieved January fifteen, 2021. [1] Archived January 21, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
17. ^ Kernighan, Brian West.; Ritchie, Dennis G. (March 1988). The C Programming Language (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0-xiii-110362-7.
18. ^ Stroustrup, Bjarne (2002). Sibling rivalry: C and C++ (PDF) (Study). AT&T Labs. Archived (PDF) from the original on Baronial 24, 2014. Retrieved April 14, 2014.
19. ^ C Integrity. International Organization for Standardization. March 30, 1995. Archived from the original on July 25, 2018. Retrieved July 24, 2018.
20. ^ "JTC1/SC22/WG14 – C". Home page. ISO/IEC. Archived from the original on Feb 12, 2018. Retrieved June two, 2011.
21. ^ Andrew Binstock (October 12, 2011). "Interview with Herb Sutter". Dr. Dobbs. Archived from the original on August 2, 2013. Retrieved September 7, 2013.
22. ^ "Revised C23 Schedule WG xiv N 2759" (PDF). www.open-std.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 24, 2021. Retrieved October 10, 2021.
23. ^ "TR 18037: Embedded C" (PDF). ISO / IEC. Archived (PDF) from the original on Feb 25, 2021. Retrieved July 26, 2011.
24. ^ Harbison, Samuel P.; Steele, Guy L. (2002). C: A Reference Transmission (fifth ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0-13-089592-9. Contains a BNF grammar for C.
25. ^ Kernighan & Ritchie (1996), p. 192.
26. ^ Kernighan & Ritchie (1978), p. iii.
27. ^ "ISO/IEC 9899:201x (ISO C11) Committee Typhoon" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on December 22, 2017. Retrieved September 16, 2011.
28. ^ Kernighan & Ritchie (1996), pp. 192, 259.
29. ^ "ten Common Programming Mistakes in C++". Cs.ucr.edu. Archived from the original on October 21, 2008. Retrieved June 26, 2009.
30. ^ Schultz, Thomas (2004). C and the 8051 (third ed.). Otsego, MI: PageFree Publishing Inc. p. twenty. ISBN978-1-58961-237-2. Archived from the original on July 29, 2020. Retrieved February ten, 2012.
31. ^ Kernighan & Ritchie (1978), p. 6.
32. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Klemens, Ben (2013). 21st Century C. O'Reilly Media. ISBN978-1-4493-2714-nine.
33. ^ Feuer, Alan R.; Gehani, Narain H. (March 1982). "Comparison of the Programming Languages C and Pascal". ACM Computing Surveys. fourteen (1): 73–92. doi:10.1145/356869.356872. S2CID 3136859.
34. ^ Kernighan & Ritchie (1996), p. 122.
35. ^ For example, gcc provides _FORTIFY_SOURCE. "Security Features: Compile Time Buffer Checks (FORTIFY_SOURCE)". fedoraproject.org. Archived from the original on January 7, 2007. Retrieved August v, 2012.
36. ^ เอี่ยมสิริวงศ์, โอภาศ (2016). Programming with C. Bangkok, Thailand: SE-EDUCATION PUBLIC COMPANY Limited. pp. 225–230. ISBN978-616-08-2740-four.
37. ^ Raymond, Eric Southward. (October xi, 1996). The New Hacker's Dictionary (3rd ed.). MIT Printing. p. 432. ISBN978-0-262-68092-9. Archived from the original on November 12, 2012. Retrieved August 5, 2012.
38. ^ "Human being Page for lint (freebsd Department 1)". unix.com. May 24, 2001. Retrieved July fifteen, 2014.
39. ^ Dale, Nell B.; Weems, Chip (2014). Programming and problem solving with C++ (sixth ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN978-1449694289. OCLC 894992484.
40. ^ Dr. Dobb'southward Sourcebook. UsaA.: Miller Freeman, Inc. Nov–Dec 1995.
41. ^ "Using C for CGI Programming". linuxjournal.com. March 1, 2005. Archived from the original on Feb thirteen, 2010. Retrieved January 4, 2010.
42. ^ McMillan, Robert (Baronial 1, 2013). "Is Java Losing Its Mojo?". Wired. Archived from the original on Feb 15, 2017. Retrieved March 5, 2017.
43. ^ O'Regan, Gerard (September 24, 2015). Pillars of computing : a compendium of select, pivotal technology firms. ISBN978-3319214641. OCLC 922324121.
44. ^ Rauchwerger, Lawrence (2004). Languages and compilers for parallel computing : 16th international workshop, LCPC 2003, College Station, TX, USA, October two-iv, 2003 : revised papers. Springer. ISBN978-3540246442. OCLC 57965544.
45. ^ Stroustrup, Bjarne (1993). "A History of C++: 1979−1991" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on February 2, 2019. Retrieved June 9, 2011.

Sources [edit]

• Ritchie, Dennis M. (March 1993). "The Evolution of the C Language". ACM SIGPLAN Notices. ACM. 28 (iii): 201–208. doi:10.1145/155360.155580.
  • By courtesy of the author, as well at Ritchie, Dennis M. "Chistory". www.bell-labs.com . Retrieved March 29, 2022.
• Ritchie, Dennis M. (1993). "The Development of the C Language". The 2d ACM SIGPLAN Conference on History of Programming Languages (HOPL-II). ACM. pp. 201–208. doi:10.1145/154766.155580. ISBN0-89791-570-4 . Retrieved November 4, 2014.
• Kernighan, Brian W.; Ritchie, Dennis M. (1996). The C Programming Language (2d ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBNvii-302-02412-X.

Farther reading [edit]

• Kernighan, Brian; Ritchie, Dennis (1988). The C Programming Language (ii ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0131103627. (archive)
• Plauger, P.J. (1992). The Standard C Library (ane ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0131315099. (source)
• Banahan, M.; Brady, D.; Doran, M. (1991). The C Volume: Featuring the ANSI C Standard (2 ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN978-0201544336. (free)
• Harbison, Samuel; Steele Jr, Guy (2002). C: A Reference Manual (v ed.). Pearson. ISBN978-0130895929. (archive)
• Rex, K.N. (2008). C Programming: A Modern Approach (2 ed.). W. W. Norton. ISBN978-0393979503. (archive)
• Griffiths, David; Griffiths, Dawn (2012). Head First C (i ed.). O'Reilly. ISBN978-1449399917.
• Perry, Greg; Miller, Dean (2013). C Programming: Absolute Beginner's Guide (3 ed.). Que. ISBN978-0789751980.
• Deitel, Paul; Deitel, Harvey (2015). C: How to Program (viii ed.). Pearson. ISBN978-0133976892.
• Gustedt, Jens (2019). Modern C (2 ed.). Manning. ISBN978-1617295812. (costless)

External links [edit]

• ISO C Working Group official website
  • ISO/IEC 9899, publicly available official C documents, including the C99 Rationale
  • "C99 with Technical corrigenda TC1, TC2, and TC3 included" (PDF). (3.61 MB)
• comp.lang.c Frequently Asked Questions
• A History of C, by Dennis Ritchie

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